The Art of Classical Chinese Gardens (3)

In the classical gardens that still exist today, one finds a harmonious interplay between nature and architecture. Decorative structures unite with cliffs, trees, flowers and hills to create artistic scenery. Gardens are supposed to resemble a sequence of continually changing landscapes. Paths wind through the grounds in a zigzag pattern, revealing new views of halls, trees, bridges, pavilions and hills. Even in the most confined places, architects have succeeded in creating a succession of varying landscapes. For example, when one opens a door into a small courtyard with no exit, he may find clumps of bamboo and rock and get an balustrade fixed on top of a wall and think it borders a hanging garden.
The most important element of a garden is water, in any form, such as ponds, lakes, streams, rivers and waterfalls. The flowing water gives pulsating life to the garden’s cliffs, stones, trees, bushes and flowers.
Trees and flowers, especially in private gardens, are carefully selected for the overall layout of the gardens because of the limited space. Plants and flowers reflecting the beauty of the four seasons are planted. In spring, peach trees blossom; in summer, lotuses blossom; in autumn, the maple leaves change color; and in winter, the evergreen, bamboos and plum trees provide greenery. Among the most popular flowers are lotuses, peonies, chrysanthemums and orchids. Special flowers are planted to attract bees or butterflies. These small insects make the gardens more lively.
Among the most important structures of garden grounds are walkways, pavilions and bridges. Timber frame construction plays a decisive role here. Pavilion-like houses have neither a harsh nor dominating effect, but rather blend effortlessly into their general surroundings.
Above all, it is the walkways that are most noticeable in gardens. They traverse the complex, subdivide it, connect the different groups of buildings and lead the visitor to the most important points.
Long corridors in the gardens are not only the passageways but also serve as resting places for people. The winding corridors are like belts linking everything together. They provide a covered veranda and function as shelter from the rain and shade from the sun.
The walls of the walkways and houses feature openings and gateways in many shapes: round moon gates, oval, angular, in the shape of vases and bottles, etc. They offer a view into the next courtyard, into the next scene and often look like the frame around a landscape painting. The fine latticework which can be seen in windows is attractive. Many walls wave on the top so they look like clouds. Looking at the walls, one can imagine the mountains rising and falling in the distance.
Pavilions were built in especially imposing places, such as on top of a hill or on a small island in the middle of a lake. Open on all sides, they offer a good view and invite the visitor to take a short rest. Various types of bridges can be found on the grounds: flat stone slab bridges from which one can comfortably watch the fish in the water, high arched bridges and swinging bridges which subdivide and at the same time ornament the grounds.
The technique of Chinese garden building has exerted a great influence on other countries. As early as in the 6th century, Chinese garden building was introduced into Japan, where gardens were given Chinese names. During the 18th century, the British developed a landscape park after the Chinese prototype. Later the enthusiasm for Chinese-style gardens spread to the European Continent. For example, twenty such scenic parks were built in Paris.
In 1980, a Chinese garden named the Astor Court (Ming Xuan) at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City was built; later, a Chinese garden named Fanghua Yuan was constructed for the 1983 Munich World Garden Exhibition in the former West Germany. A miniature model of he Garden of the Master of Nets in Suzhou was produced in 1982 for a display at the Pompidou Center in Paris.

The Art of Classical Chinese Gardens (2)

The traditions of Chinese landscape gardens have their origins far back in history. Records of the Historian, written by Sima Qian in the Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.- 25 A.D.), tells us that in the Shang Dynasty (16th- 11th century B.C.) there were special places called “you” (enclosure) for the rulers to enjoy the beauty of nature. Often these were gigantic reserves in which all kinds of animals were kept and where the rulers enjoyed hunting.
After Emperor Qin Shihuang unified China, the Shanglin Garden was built. Emperor Wu Di of the Han Dynasty followed the scale of the Shanglin Garden to build the Taiye Pond, in which there were three rockeries-Penglai, Fangzhang and Yingzhou. This layout of three hills standing in a pond greatly influenced the art of gardens for later generations and became one of the main methods for building classical Chinese gardens. In the Western Han Dynasty people began to build private gardens. The development of classical Chinese gardens during the 400 years of the Han Dynasty laid the foundation for the art of Chinese gardens.
In the Tang and Song dynasties, the art of Chinese gardens matured. Private gardens in the Song Dynasty also developed rapidly. The private gardens were mainly built with streams or gills or all kinds of plants and flowers of halls and pavilions.
The Ming and Qing dynasties were the golden ages of garden building. The imperial garden Yuanmingyuan is regarded as the masterwork of this period. In the middle and the late Ming Dynasty, the artists summed up their experience in designing gardens by writing articles about gardens, which laid the foundation, in theory, as well as in practice, for the 500 gardens built in South China, mainly in Wuxi, Yixing, Jiading and Ningbo.
A Chinese garden is not just a park or something attached to a building. It is a world in miniature. The art of Chinese gardening is a way of reconstructing nature. This is achieved by recreating landscape. In classical Chinese gardens, the flowers, grass, trees, rocks and ponds reflect natural scenes. Halls verandas, pavilions and bridges blend well with the natural sceneryof mountains and rivers.
Classical Chinese gardens were influenced by landscape painting and pastoral poetry. Horticulturists chose the most impressive natural scenery in paintings and recreated it in their gardens, the way a painter captures the natural scenery of mountains and rivers in a small picture.
The creation of classical Chinese gardens depended on mountains, rivers, buildings, plants, animals and even the weather. In these gardens usually the ground is like that of a mountainous area. This kind of garden layout imitates real terrain. The hills in classical gardens provide natural surroundings for visitors. Looking at the hills, people feel as if they live in a mountainous area and enjoy the beauty and serenity of nature.

The Art of Classical Chinese Gardens (1)

The art of classical Chinese gardens is part of China’s traditional culture. Many people say that if you have never walked through a Chinese garden, you cannot say that you have really visited China.
The art of Chinese gardens has a history of more than 3,000 years. Now China has about 1,000 classical gardens. Different from classical European gardens, in which geometric pattern dominates, Chinese gardens are made to resemble natural landscapes on a smaller scale. Classical Chinese gardens fall into two categories: imperial and private. The gardens in North China were mostly imperial property such as the Beihai Park, the Summer Palace in Beijing, and the Imperial Summer Resort in Chengde. The gardens in the South usually belonged to high officials and wealthy merchants. Many of them spent their years of retirement there in leisure.
Imperial gardens are large in area. The Summer Palace, for instance, has an area of 290 hectares while the Imperial Summer Resort, the largest imperial garden in China, covers more than 560 hectares. Most imperial gardens have three sections: the administrative section, residential section and recreational section. In large imperial gardens, the main buildings are connected by an imaginary line in the middle of the garden on a south-north axis. Other buildings scattered among hills and waters are linked by subordinate lines, forming a well-designed symmetry and adding more beauty to the chief architectural complex.
Most private gardens are found in the South, especially in cities south of the Changjiang River. Private gardens were mostly built at one side or at the back of residential houses. In almost every case, there in a large space in the garden set in a landscape of artistically arranged rockeries, ponds, pavilions, bridges, trees and flowers. Surrounding the beautiful scene are small open areas partitioned by corridors through which visitors can enjoy the scenery, buildings in the garden are open on all sides and are often situated near the water so that the whole scene can be enjoyed.Suzhou, known as the home of gardens, displays the most and the best Chinese traditional private gardens. The great many gardens in the city are good examples of Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing garden styles.

Ancient Chinese Architecture (4)

In the Han Dynasty, five basic forms for roofs evolved: the xuanshan, wudian, juanpeng, cuanjian, and xieshan. Among the various roof styles, the highest grade was the chongyan wudian roof, which was excluxively used for palatial halls and the main hall of temples. This kind of roof, can be seen in the Hall of Supreme Harmony. The second grade, chongyan xieshan roof, can be found in the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The roofs of palatial halls, chambers, and the temples of imperial ancestors were all covered with yellow glazed tiles because yellow was the color for emperors. Naturally, glazed tiles were denied to ordinary people.

The architectural painting on the columns, beams and crossbeams of a building also corresponded to the rank of the building. In the Song Dynasty (960-1279), architectural painting was categorized into three kinds to be applied in palatial halls and primary temple building; residential buildings and secondary palace chambers; and unimportant chambers respectively. Paintings were not allowed in ordinary people’s houses. The existing Qing Dynasty architectural paintings also fall into three categories: the hexi style; the xuanzi style; and the Suzhou style. Gorgeous colors, dignified design, meticulous craftsmanship and drawings of dragon and phoenix were featured in the former two types, while simpler drawings of beautiful scenes, flowers and lovely animals appeared in the latter type. The hexi style was for palatial buildings of the highest rank; the xuanzi style was for secondary palatial buildings and the main halls in Buddhist temples; the Suzhou style was mainly for imperial residential courtyards and gardens.

On the roofs of Chinese palaces, temples and mansions, there is a monster-like creature called chiwen or zoomorphic ornament, on either side of the main ridge and some on the sloping and branch ridges. Chiwen is believed to be one of the nine sons of the Heaven. According to Chinese mythology, it is able to put out fire.

At the end of the sloping and branch ridges there are often a string of smaller animals, their sizes and numbers being decided by the status of the owner of the building in the feudal hierarchy. Traditionally the correct set of the small animals should be in the following order: hen, dragon, phoenix, lion, unicorn, celestial horse, chiwen. If more were required, any of the figures could be repeated, with the exception of the hen and the chiwen, but always so as to form an odd number up to eleven. The reason for this was that odd numbers stand for Yang or male strength, or heavenly. The largest number and the conventional order of these zoomorphic ornaments are found on the roofs in the Forbidden City. However, in later days both the principle of odd numbers and the conventional arrangement of the animals have been forgotten. For example, in some places people can find a string of small terracotta warriors on the roof ridges.

Ancient Chinese Architecture (3)

The most popular method of construction was the banzhu ( plank building ) technique, in which the earth was tamped between vertical planks with poles, because it was inexpensive and provided good protection against the piercing cold of the North China winter.

Because the Chinese in ancient times built chiefly with timber and rammed earth, the term tumu ( earth and wood ) gradually became synonymous with architecture of civil engineering, and has been in common use ever since.

With the appearance of a class society, the concept of social stratum became gradually embedded in people’s thinking, as is manifested in almost every element of ancient architecture from the terrace on which a building stands to roof styles and paintings.

According to Chinese conventional belief, the terrace not only protected the building from ground moisture, but also more importantly, represented the supporting earth. Its design depended on the type of building that was to be built. The height of the terrace was determined by the rank of the structure within a building complex. Generally speaking, terraces fell into four ranks. The grandest type made of tiers of marble enclosed by marble balustrades can be found in imperial palaces and temples for buildings of the highest rank, for example, the Hall of Supreme Harmony in the Forbidden City in Beijing and the Hall of Da Cheng in the Confucian temple in Qufu, Shandong Province. The simplest terrace made of packed earth or a mixture of lime, earth, or other materials, coated with bricks is mostly for simple buildings.

The size of a building on a terrace shows the social status of its occupant. Normally, a building consisted of a number of bays. The number of bays is odd because one bay was laid out on the middle axis. The more bays a building had, the higher rank the occupant enjoyed. Generally speaking, for the size of a palatial hall, there were nine bays in the front and five on the side. In the Qing Dynasty, the expansion from nine to eleven bays shown in the Hall of Supreme Harmony in the Forbidden City and the Hall of Imperial Ancestors in today’s Working People’s Cultural Palace further flaunted the power and prestige of the emperors. In both the Ming and Qing dynasties, strict regulations were set for the size of main halls in residential building complexes for people of different social strata. For example, in the Ming Dynasty (1368- 1644), dukes and officials from the third to the fifth grade were entitled to build in the residential courtyard a main hall with three bays, officials from the sixth to ninth grade a main hall with seven bays, ordinary people a mai chamber with no more than three bays. There were also structures of only one bay, e.g., very simple houses and pavilions.

The bracket system, a component and distinctive feature of timber framework in ancient China, is very special even in world architecture. First appearing in the Shang Dynasty, it was already in common use in the Han Dynasty. The bow-shaped piece which joins the beams is called gong, and the square block beneath it dou. Originally the bracket system was supposed to support the eave and to shift the bulk of the weight to columns and beams. With time, it gradually developed social status. Imperial buildings, temples and villas belonging to high dignitaries had bracket systems between the column zone and the roof; ordinary people were not allowed to have them. Official regulations dictated to what extent this system could be used for particular structures. The size of a bracket system had a lot to do with the number of layers it had. The more layers the system had, the higher rank it represented. For buildings of the same ear, the one with more sets of dougong was superior to the one with fewer sets.

Ancient Chinese Architecture (2)

Building techniques grew quit mature in the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.- 220 A.D.). The timber frame structure and bracket system or dougong, the two prominent distinguishing features of classical Chinese architecture, had already taken initial shape and were widely used. Many varieties of bricks, tiles and tile ends were produced. All these made the construction of multi-storied buildings and the appearance of many different roof styles possible.

According to early records, China began to use the mortise-and-tenon joint in carpentry as early as 7,000 years ago, during the New Stone Age. In primitive society the Chinese used very simple tools to chisel out mortises and tenons to secure the joints of the beams. For centuries, people made columns and beams out of trees to build the house, thus the post and lintel frame were eventually created and become more widespread during the later period of primitive society, about 7,000 or 8,000 years ago. The use of timber framework as well as mortises and tenons formed the prototype of ancient Chinese architecture.

Timber frame structure enjoyed great popularity due to its structural advantages. The framework is largely composed of columns, beams and longitudinal purlins, on which the roof rests. This structure facilitates the changes of bracket system and roof styles. Besides, because the frame has the substantial weight-bearing function and the walls don’t, the space between the posts may be left open or filled with bricks or light materials to form partition walls, thus making the design and arrangement of rooms more flexible. For instance, during long hot summers, partitions between the supporting columns could be removed and taken away to let more cool air in.

Other advantages of the timber frame structure also made the Chinese give preference to wood over stone for thousands of years: wood was easier to transport and work with than stone, because large, single pieces could be used and it was strong enough to support heavy tile roof construction; wood structure was also resistant to earthquakes. A good example is the wooden pagoda in Yingxian County, Shanxi Province. Constructed in 1056, it is 67.13 meters high and is the oldest and tallest wooden pagoda extant in the world. More than 200 years after its completion, an intense earthquake lasting seven days occurred, but the pagoda remained intact. Wood was attractive to the Chinese from an aesthetic point of view as well, for it could be carved and painted elaborately to make the building beautiful and elegant.

Of course, wooden structures naturally had the disadvantages of being less permanent than stone structures. Wood catches fire more easily. It is not damp-proof, thus decaying more easily. These reasons help explain why few wooden structures from the first millennium have survived. Nevertheless, timber frame structure never lost its dominant position in ancient times.

Ancient Chinese Architecture (1)

In the long history of human development, ancient Chinese architecture has undergone all the changes from primitive thatched houses to splendid and imposing palatial buildings. In this whole process, ancient Chinese architecture gradually formed its own unique features. The art of ancient Chinese architecture is undoubtedly a very important chapter in world architectural history.

The dwellings of primitive men were natural caves. Today some people in the Northwest and North China still prefer to live in cave dwelling that are cool in summer and warm in winter. Later, the ancient Chinese learned to make their dwellings out of thatch and tree branches, which were called “nest residences.”

Archaeological findings showed that pit-style houses made their appearance during the clan society. Square or circular in shape, they took the inside bank of the pit as the walls. Pillars in the center of the room and around the walls were used to prop up the roof. Over the pillars were crossbeams and rafters covered with thatch. The roof and the walls were then coated with a mixture of mud and straw to prevent dampness. Sloping entrances and steps were the two types of doorway. A typical house of this kind can be found in the 6,000-year-old Banpo remains in the eastern suburb of Xi’an.

The Western Zhou Dynasty ( 1,046 B.C. –770 B.C.) saw a marked development in architecture. Adobe and tiles appeared, and people plastered the walls and floors with a mixture of earth, sand lime, which gives a hard and smooth surface. The layout of the courtyard was very much like that of quadrangle of today in North China. Architectural ornamentation, including painting and carving, was popular during the following Spring and Autumn Period ( 770 B.C.- 476 B.C.).

Ancient Defensive Projects (4)

The next development of wall construction techniques was to build additional ramparts that protruded from the city wall, so as to allow soldiers to see those enemies who would try to climb the walll from the side. Take Xi’an’s Ming Dynasty city wall for example. There is a rampart every 120 meters, and the distance between two ramparts is just within the range of an arrow’s shot from either of the two. At the same time, enclosure walls were added around the gate. Both of these measures in wall building emerged in the Han Dynasty, but they did not become popular until the Tang Dynasty.

Jilu Stronghold in the northwestern part of China was a very important castle in the north during the Han Dynasty. If you go further northwest and pass through what is now Ningxia you are sure to find many ruins and the remain of fortresses and strongholds along the route. Fortresses and strongholds are actually small castles. The excavation of those castles enables us to know about the subsidiary facilities of the Han-Dynasty walls, such as the shooting holes called “rotating shoot” on the crenels. This sort of device could be opened and closed conveniently. It could also adjust the angles from left to right, or vice versa. Through this “rotating shoot,” arrows could be shot outward or watchful eyes could be cast down onto the4 enemy’s movement. It was quite safe to do so. Additionally, within three meters outside the city wall, rows upon rows of sharpened stakes were buried to prevent enemies from approaching the wall swiftly.

Ancient Defensive Projects (3)

In ancient China, from the emperor’s capitals to the prefectures and counties, there were almost always city walls and moats built around them. Gatetowers, gateways, watch-towers, ramparts, and battlements were constructed so that the walls formed a strategically complete and impenetrable defensive system.

The most important gatetowers from the later Western Han period to the Sui Dynasty are multi-storied structures. Take, for example the east gate of HanguPass built at the end of the Han Dynasty. From the stone relief we can see that it was a gate with two passages. On top of each of the passages, there was a huge three-storied gatetower. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the gates had two-or three-storied towers. From the Tang to the Yuan Dynasties, the gatetowers were all single-storied. Only after the Ming Dynasty did gatetowers appear with two or more stories.

Gateways built before the Tang Dynasty were all beam-roofed, square-shaped wooden structures. In the period of the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the span of gateways needed to be expanded, so slanted beams were used on both sides to support the roof; therefore a triangle-roofed gateway was formed. Such gateways can be seen in the frescoes in the Yongle Palace (Yuan Dynasty) and in the stone reliefs in Yanshan Temple ( Jin Dynasty) in Shanxi Province. Because of the constant use of gunpowder in incessant wars, wooden gateways were not resistant to fire. Thus from the Southern Song Dynasty, the technique that the southerners used to build arched waterways was gradually employed in the construction of gateways in the north. The earliest material examples were the gateways of the Yuan capital Dadu. This kind of gateway became popular between the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties. For the same reason, gatetowers were also improved. As a result, battlements were added later on, wooden platforms were abolished, and the gatetowers were built in a drawn-back position, thus forming the common Ming-Qing-style gatetowers that we see today.

Wall building techniques have developed continuously to strengthen strategic and defensive capabilities. Consequently, parapets and battlements appeared on top of city walls. The battlement was the crenel, which was also called pini in ancient times. According to historical records, “the battlement was 85 centimeters high and 100 centimeters wide, and there was one every 50 meters apart.” To meet the needs of military defense work, the city walls were built high and thick. Watch holes and shooting holes were also constructed in the battlements.

Ancient Defensive Projects (2)

In ancient China, city walls emerged as early as in the Shang Dynasty (16^th- 11^th century B.C.). at that time, city walls were made and then tamped hard enough to make it solid and strong. The city walls were narrow on top, and wide at the bottom, forming a ladder-shaped cross section.

City walls appeared in the period when primitive society was developing into slavery society. It foretold the contention for and redistribution of property and power. It also foretold that human civilization would take the place of primitive ignorance. Although the deep ditches and moats around cities still bore traces of the clan society, the city wall already stood high in the twilight of a new ear. Even the imperial palace walls had the features of defensive works. It was the fierce fighting among primitive people that brought about the everlasting defensive projects on a large scale.

The techniques of soil tamping have been in use for a long time in China. Brick-faced walls did not appear until the Song Dynasty, and from then on brick-faced walls were on the increase. Chang’an, the capital city of the Tang Dynasty, enjoyed a reputation for having soil-tamped walls. Its gates, ramparts and corners were faced with bricks. The palace and royal city walls of Luoyang, the Eastern Capital of the Tang Dynasty, were all coated with bricks, inside and outside, which showed its wealth and prosperity, and the ever-increasing importance of its geographical position. The Yuan Dynasty saw some changes, as is seen from the historical site of Dadu, capital city of the Yuan Dynasty. The outer city walls were soil-tamped, but the royal city walls within the city were not only soil-tamped but also coated on the outside with natural flat stones. The palace in the royal city had its outside walls covered with bricks and inside walls covered with stones. According to historical records, the palace city walls were constructed with bricks. Because it cost too much to coat the walls with bricks, this practice took a long time to become popular. Brick walls then became very popular after the first half of the Ming Dynasty. In the Qing Dynasty, city walls at the county level were mostly brick structures, and soil-tamped walls could hardly be seen.

Ancient Defensive Projects (1)

When we mention ancient defensive projects, city wall, moats, fortresses, strongholds and castles naturally come to mind. Among the ancient defensive projects, city walls hold the most important position and play an essential role.

Walls are often seen in China surrounding palace and temple complexes and traditional houses. The open design of individual structures—the wide doors, windows and lattice-work walls, the many walkways and pavilions, which gave the buildings an altogether generous appearance, also made a sturdy wall to the outside necessary in order to form a closed unit. The building materials were either packed loess or mud, though in the Ming and Qing dynasties, bricks were preferred. Solid, high walls were built around cities. The most famous of all walls is the Great Wall. The gates of the Great Wall and the city walls usually consisted of two parts: the actual gateway and a complexes were built of stones and bricks. The towers, which were not necessary for defense, were made of wood.

Ancient China underwent incessant wars, disunity and violent social upheavals. As a result, people led miserable lives. Ancient military defensive projects were constructed to resist invading enemies. Therefore, city walls, high or low, huge or small, are scattered all over China. They have become an essential symbol of military projects.

China's Rivers (4)

China also has a large number of continental rivers, which either disappear into the desert or flow into inland lakes. They are located mainly in the northwest, and drain one-third of the country’s total landmass. The Tarim River in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region is fed by glaciers and snow from the Kunlun Mountains and the Pamir Plateau. It flows for 2,179 kilometers and is China’s longest continental river.

One of China’s major problems is that her rivers are not well distributed. Ninety percent of them are in the south, and many areas in the north suffer from severe water shortage, at least for part of each year. The rivers north of the Huaihe and the Qinling Mountain Range have a large flow in summer, but either dry up or freeze in winter. As a result, navigation and trade between the north and the south were once severely restricted. To solve this problem, the Chinese constructed the Grand Canal, still one of the nation’s major transportation arteries. The canal stretches for more than 1,794 kilometers from Beijing to Hangzhou in the south. It flows through four provinces, and links the Changjiang, Huaihe, Huanghe, Haihe and Qiantang river systems. The canal has provided an important economic link between the north and the south and has now become a major tourist attraction.

Lakes of all sizes are scattered throughout China but are more concentrated on the Middle and Lower Reaches of the Changjiang River Plain and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The lakes on the Middle and Lower Reaches of the Changjiang River Plain have the function of regulating floods, and they are the sources of farmland irrigation, and freshwater aquatic products.

On the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau there are large alpine lakes, most of which are continental saltwater lakes. The Qinghai Lake, covering 4,583 square kilometers, is the largest saltwater lake in China as well as the largest lake in the country.

The largest freshwater lake in the country is the Poyang Lake in Jiangxi Province, covering 3,583 square kilometers.

China's Rivers (3)

Originating at the northern foot of the Bayahar Mountains in Qinghai Province, the Huanghe is the second longest river in China. It traverses Qinghai, Sichuan, Gansu, Ningxia, Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Henan and Shandong from west to east before finally draining into the Bohai Gulf near Shandong Province. Its principal tributaries are the Taohe, Huaihe, Wuding, Fenhe, Weihe, Luohe and Qinhe rivers. It flows a total length of 5,464 kilometers and covers a drainage area of 752,400 square kilometers. The middle and lower reaches of the Huanghe are called by anthropologists and archaeologists “the cradle of Chinese civilization.” Many cities in the region such as Luoyang, aifeng and Anyang in Henan Province, Xi’an and Xianyang in Shaanxi Province were capitals of China’s great dynasties. But in spite of all its distinguished history, the Huanghe was long a region plagued with misery. Before 1949, the river was known as “China’s sorrow.” The river is stained a brownish yellow with silt carried from the Loess Plateau. As it passes through Mengjin County in Henan Province, the current slows and the silt is deposited to a depth of 10 centimeters each year on the riverbed. Throughout history, the river has repeatedly burst its banks and changed its course, causing extensive flooding in the surrounding countryside. Today, thanks to major ecological and water conservancy projects, the Huanghe no longer poses such a threat.

The Heilong River ( Black Dragon River) is one of the great rivers of Asia. Much of the northeastern border between China and Russia follows the course of the Heilong River, also known to the Russians as the Amur River. After passing beyond China’s borders, the river flows towards the northeast, ultimately emptying into the Pacific Ocean. It has a total length of 2,965 kilometers and a drainage area of 890,000 square kilometers inside China. Its main tributaries are the Jieya, Songhua and Wusuli rivers.

The Zhujiang River, the fourth longest in China, is the general name for three converging rivers: the Xijiang, Beijiang and Dongjiang rivers. The quantity of its discharge is second only to that of the Changjiang River. The Zhujiang River traverses Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Guangdong, and Jiangxi, emptying into the South China Sea at Modaomen in Guangdong Province. It has a total length of 2,200 kilometers and a drainage area of 452,000 square kilometers.

China's Rivers (2)

The Changjiang is China’s longest river, and the third longest in the world. With the Tuotuo River as its source, it flows a total length of 6,300 kilometers through Qinghai, Tibet, Yunnan, Sichuan, Chongqing, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Anhui, Jiangsu and Shanghai, and finally empties itself into the East China Sea. The total drainage area is more than 1.8 million square kilometers. It is estimated that the mean volume of water discharged at the mouth of the river is 22,000 cubic meters per second, while the sediment deposited at the mouth amounts to about 182 milllion cubic meters annually. The river is fed by about 700 tributaries, chiefly the Yalong, Minjiang, Jialing, Wujiang, Xiangjiang, Hanjiang, Ganjiang, and Huangpu rivers.

The Changjiang River valley, with 24.67 million hectares of cultivated land, has always been an important agricultural base in China. Grain and cotton outputs make up more than 40 percent and 30 percent of China’s total respectively, and rapeseed, sesame, raw silk, tea and tobacco also flourish here.

The Changjiang is the major east-west transportation artery for Central China. It serves a wide hinterland throughout its basin. Marco Polo once commented, “ on its banks are innumerable cities and towns, and the amount of shipping it carries upstream and down is so inconceivable that no one in the world who had not seen it with his own eyes could possibly credit it. Its width is such that it is more like a sea than a river.” In the fast-flowing portions of the river, river craft used to be pulled upstream by teams of coolies. They hauled their loads on long bamboo ropes from the river’s edge, or from steep paths cut into the cliffsides. The journey down stream through the gorges was once a fearsome dash through rolling, rock-strewn waters. Today, the waters have been somewhat tamed, and the river is navigable from Yibin to the sea with different forms of transportation. The dam which is being built across the river will be one of the largest in the world.

China's Rivers (1)

China has over 1,500 large rivers, and 79 of them have a catchment area of over 10,000 square kilometers, including the Changjiang, Huanghe, Zhujiang, Heilong, and Huaihe rivers.

Rivers have played a vital role in China’s economic, social and cultural development. With a total length of more than 400,000 kilometers, the nation’s river have created vast fertile plains for agriculture, allowing industry and commerce to flourish. However, occasionally, they have brought disasters.

China slopes gradually from the Eurasian hinterland in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. Its major rivers, including the Changjiang, Huanghe, Heilong, Zhujiang and Huaihe flow from west to east and empty ultimately into the Pacific Ocean. A few others, however, such as the Yarlu Zangbo in Tibet and the Nujiang in Yunnan Province, flow south into the Indian Ocean. The Ertix in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region is the only river that flows northwest. All these are outflow rivers, and their drainage basins cover 63.7 percent of China’s total landmass. Most of China’s major inland rivers are located in the north and the west, the most important being the Tarim River and the Chaidamu River. In addition, there are also man-made rivers such as the Grand Canal.

China's Mountains (3)

China’s four great Buddhist mountains are Wutai ( in Shanxi Province), Putuo ( in Zhejiang Province), Jiuhua ( in Anhui Province), and Emei ( in Sichuan Province). They are believed to be the places where Wenshu, Guanyin, Dizang and Puxian, Buddhism’s four major Bodhisattvas, preach and practise Buddhist rites.
The 3,061-meter-high Wutai Mountain in Shanxi Province is where Wenshu, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom, and the left attendant of Sakyamuni, is worshipped. Wenshu is also one of the major deities in Tibetan Buddhism. Therefore, Wutai is considered sacred by the Han Chinese, Tibetans, Mongolians and other ethnic minority groups. In the past 2,000 years, both emperors and pilgrims have visited Wutai Mountain’s five peaks and numerous temples, 47 of which still stand today.
Of China’s four most sacred Buddhist mountains, Putuo is unique in that it is the only one located on an island. It is also the smallest of the four but by no means the least important, as this tiny island in Zhejiang Province is home of Guanyin, the Goddess of Mercy, one of the most popular Buddhist figures among the Chinese people, particularly women. Easily accessible from Shanghai or Ningbo, the island boasts temples, mountains, beaches, cave, and fantastic scenery.
Jiuhua Mountain’s 99 peaks tower high into the mist and fog of Southern Anhui province. Many temples and nunneries on the mountain date back to the Tang Dynasty over 1,000 years ago, and reached their height during the Qing Dynasty, when over 3,000 monks and nuns lived here. The deity worshipped here is Dizang, or Guardian of the Earth. He is believed to have saved all the living creatures in Heaven and in Hell.
The highest of the four, the Emei Mountain in Sichuan Province, is where Puxian, the Bodhisattva of Universal Benevolence, is said to have once preached. It features many attractive places, especially the summit, or “golden peak.” Although one has the modern access of a cable car up to the summit, the real pilgrims, often elderly women, travel on foot-up 40,000 stone steps and over a distance of 60 kilometers!
As for scenic beauty, Mount Huangshan in Southern Auhui Province tops the list. Huangshan literally means “Yellow Mountain.” In ancient times, yellow was the Chinese imperial color. You can easily understand the significance of such a name. Huangshan is well-known for its pine trees, karst formations, clouds, and hot springs. Huangshan has drawn distinguished poets, writers, and painters through the centuries, and continues to attract tourists both from home and abroad all the year round.

China's Mountains (2)

The mountains most famous for cultural importance are the Five Holy Mountains, a collective name for Mount Tai( in Shandong Province), Mount Hua( in shaanxi Province), Mount Song( in Henan Province0, Mount Heng( in Hunnan Province), and Mount Heng( in Shanxi Province). Legends say that these mountains were the gathering places of gods and in the past they were the places where Chinese emperors customarily offered sacrifices.
Of the Five Holy Mountains, Mount Tai, lying in the eastern plains, is the most significant. Although it is not very impressive in height, it is one of the oldest mountains in the world and has enjoyed great reputation over thousands of years. Probably because the sun always rises in the east and brings an end to the darkness of night, ancient Chinese long believed that the east was the place where nature regulated and adjusted its procedures. This may explain why important emperors made pilgrimages mostly to Mount Tai when they were crowned or before their final years. It is a symbol of loftiness and grandeur, hence the long existing Chinese idioms:” as firm as Mount Tai” and “as weighty as Mount Tai.”
Mount Hua stands 150 kilometers east of Xi’an in the northwest part of China. It got its name becquse its major peaks together look like a lotus flower viewed from afar ( Ancient Chinese used the character “华” to mean, “花”, “flower”.). it is best known for its sheer cliffs and has for centuries been an attraction to climbers. Today, with the aid of iron chains to hang on to, hundreds of thousands of people come each year to test their courage.
Mount Song is located on the south bank of the Yellow River. Its summit is 1,500 meters above sea level. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-589), 72 temples and monasteries were erected on Mount Song. It is the home of Shaolin Monastery and is world famous because of the popularization of China’s martial arts.
In South China’s Hunan Province lies Mount Heng. It has 72 peaks, of which Zhurong is the highest and most noteworthy. Although not a mountain dedicated to Buddhism, it holds an important position in the history of Buddhist exchanges with Japan and Southeast Asian countries. Because of the mild climate, there are huge, century-old trees and various plants that are rarely found in other places.Heng lies to the southeast of Datong, Shanxi Province. Being very close to the northern borders of ancient China, it was of great military importance and was long known as a natural barrier. Remains of beacon towers and other defence works can be seen along the way. The wood pagoda in Yinxian County, Shanxi Province, the oldest and largest of its kind in China, sits nearby.

China's Mountains (1)

China is a mountainous country, with two-thirds of its surface area covered with mountains or hilly areas. Of the world’s 19 mountains that exceed the 8,000 meters mark, seven are in China or on its borders.
China’s mountains fall into three groups according to the directions in which they run, namely, the eat-west, the northeast-southwest, and the north-south ranges.
The east-west ranges, mainly in the western part of China, include the Altay, Tianshan, Kunlun, Himalayas, Qinling, and Nanling.
The Himalayas, the highest and most majestic mountain range in the world, rise above the southern rim of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Mount Qomolangma, which means “Goddess Peak” in Tibetan, is the main peak of the Himalayas and the highest peak in the world.
The Qinling Mountain Range, extending about 1,500 kilometers across Central China, forms a natural dividing line between the Changjiang and Huanghe valleys.
The northeast-southwest ranges, composed of an eastern and a western chain, are located mainly in the eastern part of China. The eastern chain includes the Changbai Mountains in Northeast China. The western chain is composed of the Great Xing’an Range in Northeast China, the Taihang Mountains in North China, the heights along the Yangtzc River Gorges, and the Xuefeng Mountains in Hunan Province.
The south-north ranges include the Hengduan Mountains in Western Sichuan and Yunnan provinces and the mountains in Eastern Taiwan Province. The Hengduan Mountain Range blocks communication between east and west, hence its name, meaning “Barrier Mountains” in Chinese.
China’s three major topographic regions are clearly marked by its mountains. The first region contains the Tibetan Plateau, averaging well over 4,060 meters above sea level, and other less dramatic highlands, dropping off in steps eastward and southward. The central portion of the Tibetan Plateau, with an average height of more than 4,800 meters, is aptly called “the Roof of the World.” The Kunlun Mountains to the north and the Himalayas to the south have several peaks reaching between 7,000 and 7,930 meters above sea level. The world’s highest mountain, Mount Qomolangma, situated on the Sino-Nepal border, rises to 8,848 meters, challenging the world’s bravest adventurers and the most skillful mountain climbers.
The second region is a highland region marked by extensive basin areas. North of the Kunlun Mountain Range are China’s two major basins: the Tarim and Junggar, separated by the Tianshan Mountains. North of Qilian and Qinling lie the vast Loess Plateau and the Inner Mongolia Plateau stretching along China’s northern border. South of the Qinling Mountain Range and east of the Hengduan Mountains are the Sichuan Basin and the Yungui Plateau. Vast in area and diverse in land features, this region is also rich in cultural resources. Visitors may explore as many as 40 different kinds of customs observed by the ethnic minority groups living in this region.
The third region is the lowlands, east of the Great Xing’an, Taihang and Wushan mountains. Topographically, there is almost nothing to mention concerning mountain chains since the area seldom rises more than 450 meters above sea level, except for some scattered highlands. Yet, since the great central eastern plains were cradles of China’s early cicilization, xome of the highland peaks are equally well-known and more frequently traveled for their long-developed legendary history.