Ancient Chinese Architecture (4)

In the Han Dynasty, five basic forms for roofs evolved: the xuanshan, wudian, juanpeng, cuanjian, and xieshan. Among the various roof styles, the highest grade was the chongyan wudian roof, which was excluxively used for palatial halls and the main hall of temples. This kind of roof, can be seen in the Hall of Supreme Harmony. The second grade, chongyan xieshan roof, can be found in the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The roofs of palatial halls, chambers, and the temples of imperial ancestors were all covered with yellow glazed tiles because yellow was the color for emperors. Naturally, glazed tiles were denied to ordinary people.

The architectural painting on the columns, beams and crossbeams of a building also corresponded to the rank of the building. In the Song Dynasty (960-1279), architectural painting was categorized into three kinds to be applied in palatial halls and primary temple building; residential buildings and secondary palace chambers; and unimportant chambers respectively. Paintings were not allowed in ordinary people’s houses. The existing Qing Dynasty architectural paintings also fall into three categories: the hexi style; the xuanzi style; and the Suzhou style. Gorgeous colors, dignified design, meticulous craftsmanship and drawings of dragon and phoenix were featured in the former two types, while simpler drawings of beautiful scenes, flowers and lovely animals appeared in the latter type. The hexi style was for palatial buildings of the highest rank; the xuanzi style was for secondary palatial buildings and the main halls in Buddhist temples; the Suzhou style was mainly for imperial residential courtyards and gardens.

On the roofs of Chinese palaces, temples and mansions, there is a monster-like creature called chiwen or zoomorphic ornament, on either side of the main ridge and some on the sloping and branch ridges. Chiwen is believed to be one of the nine sons of the Heaven. According to Chinese mythology, it is able to put out fire.

At the end of the sloping and branch ridges there are often a string of smaller animals, their sizes and numbers being decided by the status of the owner of the building in the feudal hierarchy. Traditionally the correct set of the small animals should be in the following order: hen, dragon, phoenix, lion, unicorn, celestial horse, chiwen. If more were required, any of the figures could be repeated, with the exception of the hen and the chiwen, but always so as to form an odd number up to eleven. The reason for this was that odd numbers stand for Yang or male strength, or heavenly. The largest number and the conventional order of these zoomorphic ornaments are found on the roofs in the Forbidden City. However, in later days both the principle of odd numbers and the conventional arrangement of the animals have been forgotten. For example, in some places people can find a string of small terracotta warriors on the roof ridges.

Ancient Chinese Architecture (3)

The most popular method of construction was the banzhu ( plank building ) technique, in which the earth was tamped between vertical planks with poles, because it was inexpensive and provided good protection against the piercing cold of the North China winter.

Because the Chinese in ancient times built chiefly with timber and rammed earth, the term tumu ( earth and wood ) gradually became synonymous with architecture of civil engineering, and has been in common use ever since.

With the appearance of a class society, the concept of social stratum became gradually embedded in people’s thinking, as is manifested in almost every element of ancient architecture from the terrace on which a building stands to roof styles and paintings.

According to Chinese conventional belief, the terrace not only protected the building from ground moisture, but also more importantly, represented the supporting earth. Its design depended on the type of building that was to be built. The height of the terrace was determined by the rank of the structure within a building complex. Generally speaking, terraces fell into four ranks. The grandest type made of tiers of marble enclosed by marble balustrades can be found in imperial palaces and temples for buildings of the highest rank, for example, the Hall of Supreme Harmony in the Forbidden City in Beijing and the Hall of Da Cheng in the Confucian temple in Qufu, Shandong Province. The simplest terrace made of packed earth or a mixture of lime, earth, or other materials, coated with bricks is mostly for simple buildings.

The size of a building on a terrace shows the social status of its occupant. Normally, a building consisted of a number of bays. The number of bays is odd because one bay was laid out on the middle axis. The more bays a building had, the higher rank the occupant enjoyed. Generally speaking, for the size of a palatial hall, there were nine bays in the front and five on the side. In the Qing Dynasty, the expansion from nine to eleven bays shown in the Hall of Supreme Harmony in the Forbidden City and the Hall of Imperial Ancestors in today’s Working People’s Cultural Palace further flaunted the power and prestige of the emperors. In both the Ming and Qing dynasties, strict regulations were set for the size of main halls in residential building complexes for people of different social strata. For example, in the Ming Dynasty (1368- 1644), dukes and officials from the third to the fifth grade were entitled to build in the residential courtyard a main hall with three bays, officials from the sixth to ninth grade a main hall with seven bays, ordinary people a mai chamber with no more than three bays. There were also structures of only one bay, e.g., very simple houses and pavilions.

The bracket system, a component and distinctive feature of timber framework in ancient China, is very special even in world architecture. First appearing in the Shang Dynasty, it was already in common use in the Han Dynasty. The bow-shaped piece which joins the beams is called gong, and the square block beneath it dou. Originally the bracket system was supposed to support the eave and to shift the bulk of the weight to columns and beams. With time, it gradually developed social status. Imperial buildings, temples and villas belonging to high dignitaries had bracket systems between the column zone and the roof; ordinary people were not allowed to have them. Official regulations dictated to what extent this system could be used for particular structures. The size of a bracket system had a lot to do with the number of layers it had. The more layers the system had, the higher rank it represented. For buildings of the same ear, the one with more sets of dougong was superior to the one with fewer sets.

Ancient Chinese Architecture (2)

Building techniques grew quit mature in the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.- 220 A.D.). The timber frame structure and bracket system or dougong, the two prominent distinguishing features of classical Chinese architecture, had already taken initial shape and were widely used. Many varieties of bricks, tiles and tile ends were produced. All these made the construction of multi-storied buildings and the appearance of many different roof styles possible.

According to early records, China began to use the mortise-and-tenon joint in carpentry as early as 7,000 years ago, during the New Stone Age. In primitive society the Chinese used very simple tools to chisel out mortises and tenons to secure the joints of the beams. For centuries, people made columns and beams out of trees to build the house, thus the post and lintel frame were eventually created and become more widespread during the later period of primitive society, about 7,000 or 8,000 years ago. The use of timber framework as well as mortises and tenons formed the prototype of ancient Chinese architecture.

Timber frame structure enjoyed great popularity due to its structural advantages. The framework is largely composed of columns, beams and longitudinal purlins, on which the roof rests. This structure facilitates the changes of bracket system and roof styles. Besides, because the frame has the substantial weight-bearing function and the walls don’t, the space between the posts may be left open or filled with bricks or light materials to form partition walls, thus making the design and arrangement of rooms more flexible. For instance, during long hot summers, partitions between the supporting columns could be removed and taken away to let more cool air in.

Other advantages of the timber frame structure also made the Chinese give preference to wood over stone for thousands of years: wood was easier to transport and work with than stone, because large, single pieces could be used and it was strong enough to support heavy tile roof construction; wood structure was also resistant to earthquakes. A good example is the wooden pagoda in Yingxian County, Shanxi Province. Constructed in 1056, it is 67.13 meters high and is the oldest and tallest wooden pagoda extant in the world. More than 200 years after its completion, an intense earthquake lasting seven days occurred, but the pagoda remained intact. Wood was attractive to the Chinese from an aesthetic point of view as well, for it could be carved and painted elaborately to make the building beautiful and elegant.

Of course, wooden structures naturally had the disadvantages of being less permanent than stone structures. Wood catches fire more easily. It is not damp-proof, thus decaying more easily. These reasons help explain why few wooden structures from the first millennium have survived. Nevertheless, timber frame structure never lost its dominant position in ancient times.

Ancient Chinese Architecture (1)

In the long history of human development, ancient Chinese architecture has undergone all the changes from primitive thatched houses to splendid and imposing palatial buildings. In this whole process, ancient Chinese architecture gradually formed its own unique features. The art of ancient Chinese architecture is undoubtedly a very important chapter in world architectural history.

The dwellings of primitive men were natural caves. Today some people in the Northwest and North China still prefer to live in cave dwelling that are cool in summer and warm in winter. Later, the ancient Chinese learned to make their dwellings out of thatch and tree branches, which were called “nest residences.”

Archaeological findings showed that pit-style houses made their appearance during the clan society. Square or circular in shape, they took the inside bank of the pit as the walls. Pillars in the center of the room and around the walls were used to prop up the roof. Over the pillars were crossbeams and rafters covered with thatch. The roof and the walls were then coated with a mixture of mud and straw to prevent dampness. Sloping entrances and steps were the two types of doorway. A typical house of this kind can be found in the 6,000-year-old Banpo remains in the eastern suburb of Xi’an.

The Western Zhou Dynasty ( 1,046 B.C. –770 B.C.) saw a marked development in architecture. Adobe and tiles appeared, and people plastered the walls and floors with a mixture of earth, sand lime, which gives a hard and smooth surface. The layout of the courtyard was very much like that of quadrangle of today in North China. Architectural ornamentation, including painting and carving, was popular during the following Spring and Autumn Period ( 770 B.C.- 476 B.C.).

Ancient Defensive Projects (4)

The next development of wall construction techniques was to build additional ramparts that protruded from the city wall, so as to allow soldiers to see those enemies who would try to climb the walll from the side. Take Xi’an’s Ming Dynasty city wall for example. There is a rampart every 120 meters, and the distance between two ramparts is just within the range of an arrow’s shot from either of the two. At the same time, enclosure walls were added around the gate. Both of these measures in wall building emerged in the Han Dynasty, but they did not become popular until the Tang Dynasty.

Jilu Stronghold in the northwestern part of China was a very important castle in the north during the Han Dynasty. If you go further northwest and pass through what is now Ningxia you are sure to find many ruins and the remain of fortresses and strongholds along the route. Fortresses and strongholds are actually small castles. The excavation of those castles enables us to know about the subsidiary facilities of the Han-Dynasty walls, such as the shooting holes called “rotating shoot” on the crenels. This sort of device could be opened and closed conveniently. It could also adjust the angles from left to right, or vice versa. Through this “rotating shoot,” arrows could be shot outward or watchful eyes could be cast down onto the4 enemy’s movement. It was quite safe to do so. Additionally, within three meters outside the city wall, rows upon rows of sharpened stakes were buried to prevent enemies from approaching the wall swiftly.

Ancient Defensive Projects (3)

In ancient China, from the emperor’s capitals to the prefectures and counties, there were almost always city walls and moats built around them. Gatetowers, gateways, watch-towers, ramparts, and battlements were constructed so that the walls formed a strategically complete and impenetrable defensive system.

The most important gatetowers from the later Western Han period to the Sui Dynasty are multi-storied structures. Take, for example the east gate of HanguPass built at the end of the Han Dynasty. From the stone relief we can see that it was a gate with two passages. On top of each of the passages, there was a huge three-storied gatetower. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the gates had two-or three-storied towers. From the Tang to the Yuan Dynasties, the gatetowers were all single-storied. Only after the Ming Dynasty did gatetowers appear with two or more stories.

Gateways built before the Tang Dynasty were all beam-roofed, square-shaped wooden structures. In the period of the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the span of gateways needed to be expanded, so slanted beams were used on both sides to support the roof; therefore a triangle-roofed gateway was formed. Such gateways can be seen in the frescoes in the Yongle Palace (Yuan Dynasty) and in the stone reliefs in Yanshan Temple ( Jin Dynasty) in Shanxi Province. Because of the constant use of gunpowder in incessant wars, wooden gateways were not resistant to fire. Thus from the Southern Song Dynasty, the technique that the southerners used to build arched waterways was gradually employed in the construction of gateways in the north. The earliest material examples were the gateways of the Yuan capital Dadu. This kind of gateway became popular between the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties. For the same reason, gatetowers were also improved. As a result, battlements were added later on, wooden platforms were abolished, and the gatetowers were built in a drawn-back position, thus forming the common Ming-Qing-style gatetowers that we see today.

Wall building techniques have developed continuously to strengthen strategic and defensive capabilities. Consequently, parapets and battlements appeared on top of city walls. The battlement was the crenel, which was also called pini in ancient times. According to historical records, “the battlement was 85 centimeters high and 100 centimeters wide, and there was one every 50 meters apart.” To meet the needs of military defense work, the city walls were built high and thick. Watch holes and shooting holes were also constructed in the battlements.

Ancient Defensive Projects (2)

In ancient China, city walls emerged as early as in the Shang Dynasty (16^th- 11^th century B.C.). at that time, city walls were made and then tamped hard enough to make it solid and strong. The city walls were narrow on top, and wide at the bottom, forming a ladder-shaped cross section.

City walls appeared in the period when primitive society was developing into slavery society. It foretold the contention for and redistribution of property and power. It also foretold that human civilization would take the place of primitive ignorance. Although the deep ditches and moats around cities still bore traces of the clan society, the city wall already stood high in the twilight of a new ear. Even the imperial palace walls had the features of defensive works. It was the fierce fighting among primitive people that brought about the everlasting defensive projects on a large scale.

The techniques of soil tamping have been in use for a long time in China. Brick-faced walls did not appear until the Song Dynasty, and from then on brick-faced walls were on the increase. Chang’an, the capital city of the Tang Dynasty, enjoyed a reputation for having soil-tamped walls. Its gates, ramparts and corners were faced with bricks. The palace and royal city walls of Luoyang, the Eastern Capital of the Tang Dynasty, were all coated with bricks, inside and outside, which showed its wealth and prosperity, and the ever-increasing importance of its geographical position. The Yuan Dynasty saw some changes, as is seen from the historical site of Dadu, capital city of the Yuan Dynasty. The outer city walls were soil-tamped, but the royal city walls within the city were not only soil-tamped but also coated on the outside with natural flat stones. The palace in the royal city had its outside walls covered with bricks and inside walls covered with stones. According to historical records, the palace city walls were constructed with bricks. Because it cost too much to coat the walls with bricks, this practice took a long time to become popular. Brick walls then became very popular after the first half of the Ming Dynasty. In the Qing Dynasty, city walls at the county level were mostly brick structures, and soil-tamped walls could hardly be seen.

Ancient Defensive Projects (1)

When we mention ancient defensive projects, city wall, moats, fortresses, strongholds and castles naturally come to mind. Among the ancient defensive projects, city walls hold the most important position and play an essential role.

Walls are often seen in China surrounding palace and temple complexes and traditional houses. The open design of individual structures—the wide doors, windows and lattice-work walls, the many walkways and pavilions, which gave the buildings an altogether generous appearance, also made a sturdy wall to the outside necessary in order to form a closed unit. The building materials were either packed loess or mud, though in the Ming and Qing dynasties, bricks were preferred. Solid, high walls were built around cities. The most famous of all walls is the Great Wall. The gates of the Great Wall and the city walls usually consisted of two parts: the actual gateway and a complexes were built of stones and bricks. The towers, which were not necessary for defense, were made of wood.

Ancient China underwent incessant wars, disunity and violent social upheavals. As a result, people led miserable lives. Ancient military defensive projects were constructed to resist invading enemies. Therefore, city walls, high or low, huge or small, are scattered all over China. They have become an essential symbol of military projects.