Ancient Defensive Projects (4)

The next development of wall construction techniques was to build additional ramparts that protruded from the city wall, so as to allow soldiers to see those enemies who would try to climb the walll from the side. Take Xi’an’s Ming Dynasty city wall for example. There is a rampart every 120 meters, and the distance between two ramparts is just within the range of an arrow’s shot from either of the two. At the same time, enclosure walls were added around the gate. Both of these measures in wall building emerged in the Han Dynasty, but they did not become popular until the Tang Dynasty.

Jilu Stronghold in the northwestern part of China was a very important castle in the north during the Han Dynasty. If you go further northwest and pass through what is now Ningxia you are sure to find many ruins and the remain of fortresses and strongholds along the route. Fortresses and strongholds are actually small castles. The excavation of those castles enables us to know about the subsidiary facilities of the Han-Dynasty walls, such as the shooting holes called “rotating shoot” on the crenels. This sort of device could be opened and closed conveniently. It could also adjust the angles from left to right, or vice versa. Through this “rotating shoot,” arrows could be shot outward or watchful eyes could be cast down onto the4 enemy’s movement. It was quite safe to do so. Additionally, within three meters outside the city wall, rows upon rows of sharpened stakes were buried to prevent enemies from approaching the wall swiftly.

Ancient Defensive Projects (3)

In ancient China, from the emperor’s capitals to the prefectures and counties, there were almost always city walls and moats built around them. Gatetowers, gateways, watch-towers, ramparts, and battlements were constructed so that the walls formed a strategically complete and impenetrable defensive system.

The most important gatetowers from the later Western Han period to the Sui Dynasty are multi-storied structures. Take, for example the east gate of HanguPass built at the end of the Han Dynasty. From the stone relief we can see that it was a gate with two passages. On top of each of the passages, there was a huge three-storied gatetower. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the gates had two-or three-storied towers. From the Tang to the Yuan Dynasties, the gatetowers were all single-storied. Only after the Ming Dynasty did gatetowers appear with two or more stories.

Gateways built before the Tang Dynasty were all beam-roofed, square-shaped wooden structures. In the period of the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the span of gateways needed to be expanded, so slanted beams were used on both sides to support the roof; therefore a triangle-roofed gateway was formed. Such gateways can be seen in the frescoes in the Yongle Palace (Yuan Dynasty) and in the stone reliefs in Yanshan Temple ( Jin Dynasty) in Shanxi Province. Because of the constant use of gunpowder in incessant wars, wooden gateways were not resistant to fire. Thus from the Southern Song Dynasty, the technique that the southerners used to build arched waterways was gradually employed in the construction of gateways in the north. The earliest material examples were the gateways of the Yuan capital Dadu. This kind of gateway became popular between the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties. For the same reason, gatetowers were also improved. As a result, battlements were added later on, wooden platforms were abolished, and the gatetowers were built in a drawn-back position, thus forming the common Ming-Qing-style gatetowers that we see today.

Wall building techniques have developed continuously to strengthen strategic and defensive capabilities. Consequently, parapets and battlements appeared on top of city walls. The battlement was the crenel, which was also called pini in ancient times. According to historical records, “the battlement was 85 centimeters high and 100 centimeters wide, and there was one every 50 meters apart.” To meet the needs of military defense work, the city walls were built high and thick. Watch holes and shooting holes were also constructed in the battlements.

Ancient Defensive Projects (2)

In ancient China, city walls emerged as early as in the Shang Dynasty (16^th- 11^th century B.C.). at that time, city walls were made and then tamped hard enough to make it solid and strong. The city walls were narrow on top, and wide at the bottom, forming a ladder-shaped cross section.

City walls appeared in the period when primitive society was developing into slavery society. It foretold the contention for and redistribution of property and power. It also foretold that human civilization would take the place of primitive ignorance. Although the deep ditches and moats around cities still bore traces of the clan society, the city wall already stood high in the twilight of a new ear. Even the imperial palace walls had the features of defensive works. It was the fierce fighting among primitive people that brought about the everlasting defensive projects on a large scale.

The techniques of soil tamping have been in use for a long time in China. Brick-faced walls did not appear until the Song Dynasty, and from then on brick-faced walls were on the increase. Chang’an, the capital city of the Tang Dynasty, enjoyed a reputation for having soil-tamped walls. Its gates, ramparts and corners were faced with bricks. The palace and royal city walls of Luoyang, the Eastern Capital of the Tang Dynasty, were all coated with bricks, inside and outside, which showed its wealth and prosperity, and the ever-increasing importance of its geographical position. The Yuan Dynasty saw some changes, as is seen from the historical site of Dadu, capital city of the Yuan Dynasty. The outer city walls were soil-tamped, but the royal city walls within the city were not only soil-tamped but also coated on the outside with natural flat stones. The palace in the royal city had its outside walls covered with bricks and inside walls covered with stones. According to historical records, the palace city walls were constructed with bricks. Because it cost too much to coat the walls with bricks, this practice took a long time to become popular. Brick walls then became very popular after the first half of the Ming Dynasty. In the Qing Dynasty, city walls at the county level were mostly brick structures, and soil-tamped walls could hardly be seen.

Ancient Defensive Projects (1)

When we mention ancient defensive projects, city wall, moats, fortresses, strongholds and castles naturally come to mind. Among the ancient defensive projects, city walls hold the most important position and play an essential role.

Walls are often seen in China surrounding palace and temple complexes and traditional houses. The open design of individual structures—the wide doors, windows and lattice-work walls, the many walkways and pavilions, which gave the buildings an altogether generous appearance, also made a sturdy wall to the outside necessary in order to form a closed unit. The building materials were either packed loess or mud, though in the Ming and Qing dynasties, bricks were preferred. Solid, high walls were built around cities. The most famous of all walls is the Great Wall. The gates of the Great Wall and the city walls usually consisted of two parts: the actual gateway and a complexes were built of stones and bricks. The towers, which were not necessary for defense, were made of wood.

Ancient China underwent incessant wars, disunity and violent social upheavals. As a result, people led miserable lives. Ancient military defensive projects were constructed to resist invading enemies. Therefore, city walls, high or low, huge or small, are scattered all over China. They have become an essential symbol of military projects.